Pharaohs in ancient Egypt had three crowns: red, white and blue. Red and white eventually became a double crown symbolizing united kingdoms of Lower and Upper Egypt. During military campaigns, especially battles, pharaoh wore the blue crown. All of these crowns typically were adorned by a uraeus - stylized, upright form of an Egyptian spitting cobra, used as a symbol of sovereignty, royalty, deity, and divine authority.

For the last two hundred years archaeologists discovered a lot about ancient Egypt. But never, not even once, any pharaohs crown was found. We only know about them from various depictions and portraits of Egyptian rulers.

It is quite mysterious that in spite of so many searches no crown was discovered in tombs either. Of course, many tombs were robbed by grave diggers. Yet, Tutankhamun’s tomb, discovered intact. It contained many regal items but not a crown. Crowns were assumed to have magical properties. So it is possible that there were items a dead pharaoh could not take with him and therefore all crowns had to be passed along to his living successor.

Vitellius ruled only three months from till December 22, 69. The armies of the eastern provinces had proclaimed a rival emperor; their commander, Vespasian. Very soon all Roman legions of the East, Dalmatia, and Illyricum had declared for Vespasian. Everybody deserted Vitellius. On the entrance of Vespasian’s troops into Rome he was dragged out of some hiding place and there struck down. He was beheaded and his head paraded around Rome. His brother and son were also killed.

The Senate acknowledged Vespasian as emperor on the following day, December 22, 69. This was the end of the Year of Four Emperors. Vespasian turned out to be quite a savvy administrator and reformer. He ruled for ten more years and died of natural causes in 79.

On the news of Otho’s suicide, Vitellius was recognized as emperor by the Senate. It is interesting to say that around 120 people claimed the credit for killing emperor Galba, being anxious to win Otho’s favour and hoping for a large reward. A list of their names was drawn up, which fell into the hands of Vitellius when he succeeded Otho as emperor. Every one of them was executed.

Vitellius turned out to have extremely violent nature. He quickly accrued large debts by conducting numerous feasts, banquets and triumphal parades that brought treasure close to bankruptcy. Yet, those who dared to demand repayment for debts were tortured and executed. He also started killing citizens who named him as their heir, often together with any co-heirs. New emperor also lured each and every rival into the palace with promises and assassinated them without any remorse.

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Year 69 AD in Europe is called the Year of Four Emperors. In this remarkable period four Roman emperors Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian consecutively became the rulers of the empire. Three of them would rise and fall, while the last one - Vespasian - became the founder of the stable Flavian dynasty that succeeded Julio-Claudians.

After forced suicide of emperor Nero in 68 AD, Roman general Galba was recognized as emperor and welcomed into the city at the head of his legions. However Galba rule ended on January 15, 69, when a large group of Praetorian guard killed him in the Forum. Assassins hacked Galba’s corpse to pieces and paraded his severed head on a pole.

Roman senator Otho was recognized as emperor by the Senate that same day. He belonged to the noble Etruscan family descended from princes of Etruria. He ruled till April 16 of the same infamous year of 69 AD. Rebellious general Vitellius easily defeated him in the battle. Otho stabbed himself in the heart with a dagger, which he had concealed under his pillow, and died as his attendants entered the tent.

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After being acclaimed imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title. The definition of great victory meant that not less than five thousand foreign troops were killed during the battle.

Yet this was not all. Only Roman Senate would evaluate all the events in order to give its approval. There were cases, when a Roman general was denied his triumph. For example, Crassus who defeated Spartacus and his army did not receive his triumph, although the threat to Rome was extremely serious. This happened because internal conflicts did not count. Only defeat of the foreign enemy would merit for triumph, all other victories would be evaluated for ovation which was of a lesser form of triumph.

Naturally, when the days of Roman republic were over, the real meaning and importance of triumph ceremony faded. Any Roman Emperor could grant himself triumph at a whim. The tradition of Roman triumphs survived for a while in Byzantine empire. Last recorded triumph was organized in 534 by Emperor Justinian for his greatest general Flavius Belisarius.

Up until today nobody knows the origin of the Roman triumph ceremony. Some say that it came from ancient Etruscan civilization and then passed to Rome as a civil ceremony and religious rite. No historian could establish with certainty when the last Roman triumph ceremony was conducted.

In the times of Roman republic, triumph was held to publicly honour the triumphator - military commander of a notably successful foreign war or campaign and to display the glories of Roman victory. If the Roman general wanted to have a triumph in his honor, he had to meet certain requirements.

For example he had to be proclaimed an imperator by his troops after a great victory. This acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. Then an imperator would bring the army home, signifying that the war was over and that the army was no longer needed.

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For his achievements Sulla was awarded the highest Roman military honor - a famous Grass Crown. This award was given for personal bravery to a commanding general that saves a Roman legion or army in the field. Unlike all other Roman military honors, it was awarded only by acclamation of the soldiers of the rescued army. By tradition, the Grass Crown was woven from grasses and other plants taken from the actual battlefield.

Sulla’s military skills were required again during the war against powerful Mithridates VI, king of Pontus. Roman general successfully and masterfully defeated king and his allies, despite all odds. For example, in 86BC, in the Battle of Chaeronea Sulla had defeated a vastly superior force in terms of numbers. It was also the first recorded time that battlefield entrenchments were used.

An interesting even occurred in 82 BC that influenced in many ways the future of Rome. At that time Sulla was appointed the dictator of Rome. He had many powerful enemies in the Senate and patrician families. The young Julius Caesar became one of Sulla’s targets. His father-in-law Cinna was number one enemy of Sulla. Miraculously, young Julius Caesar managed to flee the city in time and survive. Yet Sulla never let his adversaries off the hook, so sooner or later young Caesar was bound to die. Young Julius got lucky again. He was saved through the efforts of his relatives, many of whom were Sulla’s supporters. Yet, Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar’s life, because of the young man’s notorious ambition.

Last time I was telling you that Roman dictator Sulla was famous for his bravery and cunning. Here is his glorious deeds in brief.

In 106 BC Sulla participated in the Roman war against king Jugurtha of Numidian in northern Africa. Thanks to him, Romans defeated Jugurtha. Sulla persuaded Jugurtha’s ally and father-in-law king Bocchus of Mauretania to betray Jugurtha, who had fled there for refuge. It was a dangerous operation from the start, for king Bocchus was weighing up the advantages of handing Jugurtha over to Sulla or Sulla over to Jugurtha. Grateful Romans erected a statue of Sulla donated by King Bocchus in the Forum to commemorate his accomplishment.

In 104 BC Rome was in danger again. The migrating Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutones were heading for Italy. Sulla, as a commander of a Roman army defeated the tribes and was credited as being the prime mover in the victory.

Citizens of Rome needed Sulla’s skills again during the so called Social War that started in 91 BC. This war was fought against the Rome’s Italian allies. During his military campaign Sulla defeated the rebels and outshone all other Roman generals. As a result of his success in bringing the Social War to a successful conclusion, he was elected consul for the first time in 88 BC.

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Admiring his noble deed, Roman citizen chose him as a consul for the year of 80 BC. After his time as a consul was over, Sulla simply retired to his country villa. He chose not to get involved  with political activities in Rome anymore.  Instead, he started writing his memoirs that were completed just before his death. He died in his bed surrounded by his favorite actors and dancers.

Later greedy for power Julius Caesar ridiculed Sulla for resigning voluntarily. Yet, Sulla died peacefully, while Caesar was brutally murdered by senators’ daggers. So one can see, who was right in the end.  Unfortunately, example of Sulla inspired other Roman generals who were dreaming of dictatorship. Though he resigned his complete command of the Republic, Sulla was the one who provided the inspiration for Caesar’s future dictatorship. His example proved that it could be done, and therefore inspired other Roman generals to attempt it.

Before Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus, there was a man who, actually, hastened the end of the Roman Republic by his example. His name was Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, but usually he was known simply as Sulla.

Sulla had the best chance to become the first Roman Emperor but for some unknown to historians reasons he simply did not want to. Contemporaries compared him to half fox and half lion, due to his perceived cunning and bravery. He enjoyed the absolute power of a dictator. Yet one day he stunned Rome by publicly resigning his dictatorship. It happened near the end of 81 BC. Sulla not only resigned, he also disbanded loyal to him legions and reestablished normal consular government, He dismissed his personal guard and walked unguarded in the forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen.

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